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Roberth Boyle

Robert Boyle was an aristocrat born in Lismore Castle in Lismore, Waterford , Ireland in 1627 seventh son and fourteenth in total, the wealthy Earl of Cork. Still a child, learned to speak Latin and French , being sent only eight years Eton College, of which he was director of her father's friend Sir Henry Wotton . At 15, he started traveling with a French tutor. He lived for nearly two years in Genoa and visiting Italy in 1641, spent the winter in Florence exploring paradoxes of Galileo Galilei, who pass away the following year.
Returning to England in 1644 found that his father had died leaving his estate of Stalbridge in Dorset , and estates in Ireland , a fortune granted to a large part to its research. Frequented London where he met the group of scientists that later formed the nucleus of the Royal Society. Since then, devoted his life to scientific research and study, soon taking a prominent place among the inquisitors known as the Invisible College (Invisible College), whose members were devoted to the cultivation of the "new philosophy" (science). Its members met frequently in London , often at Gresham College , some also held meetings in Oxford , Boyle city where she moved in 1654 .
In 1657, reading about the air pump Otto von Guericke was proposed with the help of Robert Hooke develop improvements in its construction, which resulted in the machine or machine Boyleana air completed in 1659 and it started with a series of experiments on properties air. In 1660, he published an account of the work done with that instrument with the title New Experiments PhysicoMechanical Touching the Spring of Air and Its Effects (New Physico-mechanical experiments on the elasticity of air and its effects).
Using such a bomb, was the first to demonstrate Galileo's assertion that in a vacuum, a pen and lump of lead fall at the same speed, and also stated that the sound not transmitted in a vacuum. His most important discovery because of the vacuum pump was the beginning (called later Boyle's Law) that the volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure with which the gas is compressed and that if the pressure is removed, the air "recovered" (his own word) their original volume. Having established that the air was compressible. Boyle was convinced that it was composed of small particles separated by empty space . All these ideas were published in a book with a title very long, often called "the elasticity of the air" and played a significant role in establishing the idea of \u200b\u200b atomic nature of matter .
In the field of chemistry, Boyle noted that the air is consumed in the combustion process and that metals gain weight when oxidized. Recognized the difference between a compound and a mixture, and formulated his atomic theory of matter based on laboratory experiments.
Among the critics of the theories expounded in this work was the Jesuit Franciscus Linus (1595-1675), being as he answered their objections when Boyle states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure, known in the Anglo-Saxon as Boyle's Law, and in Europe as Boyle-Mariotte , although the latter was not published until 1676 .
In 1663 the Invisible College became the Royal Society of London "for the improvement of knowledge of nature", Boyle found between board members appointed by royal charter granted by Association Carlos II. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honor of being named by unscrupulous before oaths.
In 1668 he left Oxford and moved to London at the home of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall around 1689, his health, never very robust, began to fail, forcing him to withdraw from her public engagements, ceasing their communications with the Royal Society and by making public his desire to be excused from receiving visitors, except in very special occasions, Tuesday and Friday mornings and Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. His health worsened in 1691 , died on December 30 of that year to be beaten by a prostitute, just a week after his sister died, with whom he had lived more than 20 years. His body was interred in the chapel of St Martin's in the Fields , after a funeral officiated by his friend Bishop Burnet.
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When Boyle found in 1675 Silvio theory-Tachenio (a reaction between an acid and a base is a neutralization reaction) has challenged the vagueness of the terms acid and alkali (base) as were used in it, and said the turmoil was not an appropriate test to check the acidity, it also was for alkalinity. Boyle
indicators developed, discovered a substance vegatal blue, purple juice concentrate, q became red with acids and green with alkalis.
In "Experimental History of Colours" in 1664 argued that if the dyers and artists could create a wide range of different colors from a single plant extract, by adding an acid or alkali (base) could also use these statements as indicators of acidity or alkalinity of unknown substances. From this statement comes the litmus test, which was done with natural dye Rocella. The medieval painters soaking small pieces of linen cloth in the juice plant purple litmus. When dry cloths dipped in the water, forming a bright red solution that could be used like watercolor, especially if vinegar is added to enhance the color. If, however, it was a dry cloth with lime water, and if the urine was used as a solvent, once dry colorazión acquired a violet. It is not known whether Boyle drew the idea of \u200b\u200bthis technique litmus medieval, but it seems very likely.

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Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

(1743-1794)
French chemist and father of modern chemistry, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was a brilliant experimenter and multi-faceted genius, active in both science and public affairs. Developing a new theory of combustion was complete with the doctrine of phlogiston, which had dominated chemistry course for more than a century. His fundamental studies of oxidation showed the role of oxygen in chemical processes and quantitatively showed the similarity between oxidation and respiration. Formulated the principle of conservation of mass in chemical reactions. Clarified the distinction between elements and compounds and was instrumental in the design of a modern system of chemical nomenclature. Lavoisier was a scientific first models to introduce quantitative procedures in chemical research.
1743 Lavoisier was born in Paris. His father, a lawyer and parliamentary adviser gives an excellent education at the Collège Mazarin, where he received training ciencias.1764 classic and received his license to practice law. His restless mind, however, inclines to the ciencia.1765 receive the Gold Medal of the Academy of Sciences for an essay on the best way to light a city. Among his early works are articles on the Aurora Borealis, and the composition of the cast. Guettarda J.-E. geologist helped to prepare the atlas minaralógico of Francia.1768 is admitted to the French Academy as a chemist assistant for an article on analysis of water samples. He went through all grades of the academic structure and became director in 1785 and named assistant treasurer in 1791.Es one of the departments of government tax collectors and then member holder in the middle of the Ferme Générale, the lead agency impuestos.1770 catcher became famous to refute the belief that the earth becomes water by repeated distillation. To carefully weigh the solid residue and the distillation apparatus showed that the solid matter from the container and not agua.1771 Paulze He married Marie, who assist him in his work with illustrations of his experiments, recording the results and translations English scientific articles. 1772 His father bought him a title of nobility as the rich bourgeois practice. In November a sealed note deposited at the Academy of Sciences stating that sulfur and phosphorus gain weight when they burn because they absorb "air" 1773 published his first book, booklet chimiques et physiques (physical and chemical Booklets where he presented results of his reading and his experiments. That year, Joseph Priestley prepared "dephlogisticated air (oxygen ) to heat the "red precipitate of mercury (mercuric oxide, cinnabar). Lavoisier confirmed this work and to see that in combustion and calcination of metals only used a portion of the air, concluded that the active agent was the new" air "Priestley that was absorbed by burning and the" non-vital air "(nitrogen). showed that combining this" air "coal produced" fixed air " (Carbon dioxide) obtained by Joseph Black in 1754.1775 is named as regisseur des poudres (managing director of gunpowder). With his usual energy, he devoted himself to improving the chaotic fireworks industry. This gave him the opportunity to move to Arsenal in Paris where he set up a superb laboratorio.1777 In a report submitted to the Academy, read in 1779 but not published until 1781 Lavoisier gave the "air dephlogisticated" the name of oxygen or "producer acid. " He explained combustion as the result of the release of a hypothetical principle of fire, phlogiston, but the result of the combination of burning and substance oxígeno.1783 Academy announced that water is the product of the combination of hydrogen ("inflammable air" that the English chemist Henry Cavendish had empleado.1785 is appointed to the Cabinet Committee on Agriculture and as his secretary wrote reports and instructions on cultivation and several schemes agrícolas.1786 Post a brilliant attack on the theory of flogisto.1787 With a group of French chemists, publishes the Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature) that classified and renamed the elements and compounds known. As a landowner in Orleans Province, Lavoisier was elected assembly member provincial.1788 With others, establishes the Annales de chimie (chemistry reports) a journal dedicated to the new chemistry. 1789 published his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry) provides an accurate account of his work and introduces a new approach to chemistry. Those substances defined as items that can not be broken. Clearly established law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions. Nothing, he said, is created or destroyed, there is only alterations and modifications and there are just as-a-equation of mass before and after release operación.Como and political reformer, Lavoisier took part in the French Revolution. When the States-General met, was Deputy alternate and drafted a code of instructions to guide the diputados.1790 Appointed secretary and treasurer of the committee to ensure uniformity of weights and measures throughout France, work that led to the establishment of the system métrico.1791 Ferme Générale was abolished and Lavoisier lost his position with gunpowder manager and had to leave Arsenal. Jean Paul Marat as acusó.1793 began the Reign of Terror. Was deleted Academy of Sciences. It ordered the arrest of former members of the Ferme Générale.1794 After a trial that lasted less than a day, a revolutionary tribunal condemned Lavoisier and 27 others to death. That afternoon, he and his companions, including his father, were guillotined in the Place de la Révolution (now Place de la Concorde). His body was thrown into a mass grave.

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Robeth Boyle Joseph Priestley

(Lisemore, now Ireland, 1627-London, 1691) English chemist, born in Ireland. Pioneering experiments in the field of chemistry, in particular as regards the properties of gases, Robert Boyle's reasoning about the behavior of matter at the corpuscular level were the forerunners of the modern theory of chemical elements. It was also one of the founding members of the Royal Society of London.

Born into a noble family, Robert Boyle studied in the best English and European schools. From 1656 to 1668 he worked at Oxford University as an assistant to Robert Hooke, with whose cooperation was in conducting a series of experiments that established the physical characteristics of air, and the role it plays in combustion processes, respiration and sound transmission.
The results of these contributions were collected in New Physico-mechanical experiments on the elasticity of air and its effects (1660). In the second edition of this work (1662) described the famous property of gases known of Boyle's law, which states that the volume occupied by gas (now we know that this law is enforced only by accepting a theoretical ideal gas behavior), at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure.
In 1661 he published The Sceptical Chemist, a work that attacks the old Aristotelian theory of four elements (earth, water, air, fire), and the three principles advocated by Paracelsus (salt, sulfur and mercury). By contrast, Boyle proposed the concept of fundamental particles which, when combined together in varying proportions produce different substances known.
His experimental work also addressed the study of the calcination of various metals, and also suggested how to distinguish substances alkaline, acidic, which gave rise to the use of chemical indicators. Devout Protestant, Robert Boyle spent part of their money in projects such as translation and publication of the New Testament in Gaelic and Turkish.

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(1733-1804), British chemist, considered one of the founders of the modern chemistry for his contributions to the field of experimentation, who isolated and described several gases (oxygen the among others).

born March 13, 1733 at Fieldhead (Yorkshire), son of a Calvinist minister. Their training was oriented to be a minister of the Church of the dissidents including several churches separated from the Church of England. He studied at Daventry Academy, he became interested in physics. His first ministry was in Needham Market (Suffolk) in 1755, and was minister of the Church in Nantwich (Cheshire) from 1758 to 1761. He later became a tutor at Warrington Academy in Lancashire, where he distinguished by their planning workshops for students entering industry and commerce. He also wrote a text, Rudiments of English Grammar (1761), which differed from all former approaches and conventional. He was ordained in 1762.

Priestley was encouraged to conduct experiments on the new science of electricity by the statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin , whom he met in London in 1766. Priestley wrote the following year history of electricity. He also discovered that charcoal is a conductor of electricity. In 1767 he was minister of the Church in Leeds (Yorkshire), where he developed his interest in research on gases. For his innovative experimental work was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1772, the same year that William Petty Fitzmaurice, second Earl of Shelburne, he was employed as librarian and literary companion.

During the experiments conducted in 1774 Priestley discovered oxygen and described its role in combustion and the breathing. Defender of the theory of phlogiston , Priestley called the new gas 'dephlogisticated air' and was not fully aware of the importance of his discovery would have on the future. ( Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele could have discovered oxygen before Priestley, but did not disclose their work in time to be credited as its discoverer). Priestley also isolated and described the properties of many other gases such as ammonia , nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide . During his career, opposed to the revolutionary theories of the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier , who gave his name to oxygen and correctly described its role combustion.

In 1780 Priestley left his job with Petty because of religious differences. Was a minister in Birmingham (West Midlands today, then in Warwickshire). At that time he was in favor of unitary thinking and was considered a radical religious (see Unitarianism ). His book History of the corruptions of Christianity (1782), was officially burned in 1785. Due to its declared support for the French Revolution , mobs burned her home and belongings in 1791. She moved to London and in 1794 emigrated to America, where he continued writing for the rest of his life. Priestley died in Northumberland, on 6 February 1804. His writings on theology and other topics (25 volumes, 1817-1832), Memoirs and Correspondence (2 volumes, 1831-1832) collected after his death, covering a wide range of topics on science, politics and religion.

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jhon dalton

(Eaglesfield, Great Britain, 1766-Manchester, 1844) British chemist and physicist. In his childhood with his brother helped his father in farm work and small family store where woven dresses, while her sister Mary helped her mother with the housework and selling paper, ink and pens. Although

economic situation was quite humble, they received some education in the nearest Quaker school, unlike other children in the same condition. The school teacher Pardshow Quaker Jonh Dalton Hall provided a good basis and transmitted desire for relentless pursuit of new knowledge. A rich Quaker, Elihu Robinson, became his mentor and another source of stimulation to mathematics and science (especially the weather).
With only 12 years old Jonh Dalton opened a school in his hometown, Eaglesfield. Although he learned to handle problems with students older than him, after two years had to abandon his project due to low pay, and had to return to work in the fields working for an uncle. Jonh Dalton
In 1781 he joined his brother as an assistant to George Bewley in school Kendall. When George retired, he and his brother opened their own school, where classes offered English, Latin, Greek and French, in addition to 21 issues related to mathematics and science. Her sister moved with them to help around the house. Despite having about 60 students, sometimes they had to work to keep auxiliary tasks.
John Gough, the blind son of a wealthy merchant, he became friends with John Dalton and his mentor. He taught languages mathematics and optics, and share your library with Dalton. Dalton's interest extended into the air, astronomy and geography, and in 1787 began lecturing extraordinary income. He also went to a nearby museum with an offer to sell classified eleven volumes of his botanical collection. He collected butterflies and studying the snails, ticks and worms. Also measured their food intake and compared it with the waste produced by your body. Preparing their entry into medical school, but his family discouraged by lack of money and trust in him.
At the age of 26 years (1792), Dalton found that neither he nor his brother were able to distinguish colors. His mother gave him a half (which he believed blue) and she asked in surprise what was the reason that gave scarlet stockings, that it was inappropriate for a Quaker. In his first important scientific paper, John Dalton gave a scientific description of this phenomenon later became known by the name of colorblindness.
In 1793, he moved to Manchester as a tutor at the New College founded by the Presbyterians. Immediately enrolled at the Manchester Library and Philosophical Society (which would chair). In the same year Dalton published his first book, Meteorological Observations and Essays, where he defended the thesis that the air is a physical mixture of gases rather than a chemical combination. As a chemistry tutor knew the work of Lavoisier.
In 1802 he established his law of partial pressures (Dalton's Law). When two elastic fluids A and B are mixed, there is repulsion between particle A and a B, but between one particle and another particle B B. It also established a relationship between vapor pressure and temperature. His interest in the gases derived from his fondness for meteorological studies: Always carry equipment of the time where was, performing throughout his life over two hundred thousand observations consistently noted in his diary. These observations, his analytical mind could find numerical relations between data.
In 1803, while trying to explain his law of partial pressures, began to make his greatest contribution to science: the atomic theory. Was studying the reaction of nitric oxide with oxygen when he discovered that the reaction could take place with two different proportions: sometimes 1:1,7 and other 1, 3.4 (by weight). This led to Dalton to establish the law of multiple proportions, which states that the weights of two elements always combine with another in small whole number ratios. In the same year he published his first list of atomic weights and symbols.

The results were communicated orally and in a book published in 1808, his most famous work: A New System of Chemical Philosophy, Part I. It adopted the idea of \u200b\u200bindividual atoms and particles drawn to illustrate the chemical reactions. Not everyone accepted the new theory and in 1810 published the second part, providing new empirical evidence.
Although he was a member of the Royal Society since 1822 and in 1825 received the medal of the scientific society for his work in atomic theory, Dalton was always considered himself primarily a teacher, who earned a living by giving classes and lectures until 1933, when he was awarded an annual civil pension. On July 27, 1844 died of a heart attack. According to his wish, after his death an autopsy was performed to determine the cause of what was later called color blindness. His latest experiment showed that the blindness is not a problem of the eye itself, but was caused by a deficiency of sensorial power. He was buried with honors from the monarch, at a funeral followed by more than four hundred thousand people, contrary to the principles of the Quakers under which he lived.

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Egyptian information technology

In the desert of northeastern Africa Egypt emerged, one of the most splendid civilizations of history, which left cultural development, among other things, architectural monuments that remain today as the most distinctive symbol of what life was like along the Nile Egyptians were
undoubtedly an advance people, together with considerable power to develop a territorial anticipated many activities that we know today as art, culture and astronomy. Since the beginning of its history created a society based on agriculture, taking advantage of the benefits of the Nile, which would have made impossible the absence of human existence there. Therefore, the great historian Greek Herodotus referred to Egypt as the "gift of the Nile."
This flow comes in lakes Victoria, Albert and Edward, in central Africa where the tropical climate causes rainfall to make the river is flowing to its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea.
In the months of June and October produced more abundant tropical rains, making the river flow increases dramatically. Late September when the waters began to fall, fertilizer deposited silt on the banks of the river, as the Egyptians took advantage of cultivation areas. They, after successive observations, discovered that there was a regularly recurring cycle, and that there a significant relationship between the rise of the Nile and the movement of the stars, which gave rise to the solar year of 365 days.
For Nile floods were well used, the Egyptians had to construct irrigation canal systems and barriers, whose job required a large collective discipline that only a strong government could impose. This is why it is said that the Nile determined the formation of the state and the political organization of ancient Egypt.
Cult of the dead and the construction of pyramids
The mystery of the pyramids
These great buildings that endure to this day have unna lot of secrets we can not yet reveal. For example, the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, considered by many historians as tombs but never found them in any Pharaoh died, why?. Little is known of the pyramids is not even entirely sure how they were built or at what time. Some say it was built about 2700 years a. C.; others think dating from before the flood and were lifted by the civilization of Atlantis, or even that they were made by aliens. The one fact is certain is that today we would not be possible to build even if we use all modern technology. Some day we will know the truth.
For the Egyptians, religious concern spread after death. Hence the very special and fervent worship that paid to the deceased. These people strongly believed that after death the soul of man would live happy only if special treatment was given to the corpse to preserve it from corruption. In this way, they perfected the process of conversion is embalming, by which the corpses became mummies placed in tombs. These were decorated with sumptuous varying depending on the social hierarchy of the dead. The tomb
various objects were deposited, it was believed, the deceased could need or miss in the afterlife. Birds and cats, among other animals, were too stuffed to serve as company men on their journey to another world. We could not miss the inclusion of a papyrus which listed the virtues and good works of the deceased, in order to try him leniently by Osiris, the god of the afterlife, in the court of the dead.
The pyramids were the tombs most luxurious and impressive, since they did bury the pharaohs. The most important are those of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure.
participate in the construction of these monuments and temples of the Egyptians was an act of profound significance. All the land of Egypt and his people belonged to the gods, and in particular to Horus, who, it was believed, the king represented on earth in the course of his life. The functions of Horus consisted in keeping the total order of the universe, established at the time of creation, and that included not only the social and political structure of Egypt, but also the laws of nature, the movement of heavenly bodies, succession of the seasons and the flood and drought (level of a river) annual Nile
The building of the pyramids has been admired for all generations. Considered as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, representing an engineering work that still constitute a challenge trying to match.

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of aristoteles

Aristotle was born in the year 384 BC in a small town close to Mount Athos Macedonian call Stagira, hence its nickname, the Aristotle. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to Amyntas III, father of Philip and, therefore, grandfather of Alexander. Nicomachean belonged to the family of Asclepiades, which claimed descent from the founding god of medicine and whose knowledge was transmitted from generation to generation. This encourages us to think that Aristotle was started as a child in the secrets of medicine and hence it came his love of research experimental and positive science. Lost his father and mother, a teenager who was adopted by Proxenus, which years later was able to show his gratitude by taking to her son named Nicanor.

In 367, that is, when he was seventeen years old, was sent to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. It is not known what kind of personal relationship was established between the two philosophers, but, judging by the few references made to each other in their writings, no one can speak of undying friendship. Which, moreover, is logical if one considers that Aristotle would start his own philosophical system based on profound criticizes platonic. Both started from Socrates and his concept of eidos, but the difficulties of Plato to insert your eidetic world, the ideas in the real world forced Aristotle to be shaping the terms 'substance', 'essence' and 'form' you definitely walk out of the Academy. Instead, it is absolutely false legend that Aristotle left Athens indignant because Plato, in his death, his nephew Speusippus appoint to take charge of the Academy. In his capacity as Macedonian Aristotle was not legally eligible for that position.
Alexander the Great on the horizon
Plato's death, which occurred at 348, Aristotle was thirty-six years old, spoke last twenty of them simultaneously teaching with the study and was in Athens, as they say, without a job or benefit. So should not have to think much when he learned of Atarneo Hermias, a Greek soldier of fortune (for details, a eunuch) who came over in the northwest sector of Asia Minor, was meeting in the city of Axos a few disciples of the Academy would like to collaborate with him on the Hellenization of his domain. Aristotle was installed in Axos in company with Xenocrates of Chalcedon, a fellow academic, and Theophrastus, the disciple and heir apparent of the Aristotelian legacy. The Aristotle would
there three years peaceful and successful, devoted to teaching, writing (much of the written policy there) and reproduction, as first married a niece of Hermias called Pythias, with whom he had a daughter. Pythias must have died very soon after and joined another Aristotle Aristotle, named Erpilis, who bore him a son, Nicomachus, who devoted his Ethics. Since Aristotle himself wrote that the man must marry at thirty-seven years and women at eighteen, it is easy to deduce what age should take over and when he joined them.
After the murder of Hermias, in 345, Aristotle moved to Mytilene (Lesbos Island), focusing, in company with Theophrastus, the study of biology. Two years later, in 343, was hired by Philip of Macedonia to take over the education of his son Alexander, who was then thirteen years of age. Neither is known about the relationship between the two, as legends and forgeries have erased all traces of truth. But the truth of the character that his contemporaries attributed to Alexander (which unanimously arrogant cross out, drinking, cruel, vindictive and ignorant), not noticed any feature of the influence that Aristotle could have on him. Neither is aware of the influence Alexander on his master in the political arena, as Aristotle was preaching the superiority of the city-state when the alleged disciple was already putting the foundations of a universal empire, without which, in the words of historians, the Hellenic civilization had fallen long before . Coming home

Shortly after Philip's death, Alexander was running a nephew of Aristotle, Calisthenics Olinto, whom he accused of treason. Knowing the vindictive character of his pupil, Aristotle fled a year Stagira properties, moving to Athens in 334 to found, always in the company of Theophrastus, the Lyceum, an institution teaching that for years would have to compete with the Platonic Academy, led at that time by his old comrade Xenocrates of Chalcedon.
The eleven years between his return to Athens and the death of Alexander in 323, was used by Aristotle to conduct a thorough review of a work that, in the words of Hegel, is the foundation of all sciences. To put it as succinctly as possible, Aristotle was a wonderful synthesizer of knowledge, so attentive to the generalizations that constitute the science and the differences that distinguish not only between individuals, but also prevent the reduction of large genera phenomena and who study science. As he says, people can be mobile and immobile, while separate (the subject) or not separated. The science of mobile beings is not separate physical beings of stationary and no mathematics is separated, and the immobile beings separate theology.
The breadth and depth of his thought is such that it was necessary to wait two thousand years for someone arises similar size. And during that period, his authority came to be so established and unquestioned as exercised by the Church, and both science and philosophy of intellectual advance any attempt had to start with an attack on any Aristotelian philosophical principles.
However, the path followed by the thought of Aristotle to its current prominence is so amazing that even after deducting what may have added to the legend, it seems an argument adventure novel.
The Adventure of the manuscripts
With the death of Alexander in 323, Athens extended a wave of nationalism (anti-Macedonian) triggered by Demosthenes, a fact that Aristotle meant to face a charge of impiety. Not being in the mood to repeat the adventure of Socrates, Aristotle was exiled to the island of Chalcis, where he died in 322. According to tradition, Aristotle gave Theophrastus works, which in turn yielded to the Nele, who sent them home to their parents in Esquepsis securely packed in boxes and the order that they are hidden in a cave to avoid their being seized bound for Pergamum library.
Many years later, Neleo heirs sold them to Apelicón of Teos, a philosopher who took them with him to Athens. In 86 BC, in the midst of Roman occupation, Sila learned of the existence of such cases and seized to be sent to Rome, where they were purchased by Tiranión the Grammarian. Hand in hand, these works were suffering successive deterioration until, in the year 60 BC, were acquired by Andronicus Rhodes, the last manager of the Lyceum, who proceeded to final editing. He was responsible, for example, the invention of the term "metaphysics", the title under which the books are grouped VII, VIII and IX and that simply means leaving then physics.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, the works of Aristotle, as the rest of the Greco-Roman culture disappeared until, well into the thirteenth century, were recovered by the Arab Averroes, who met through the version of the Syrian Arab and beans. Of the total of 170 works that collected old catalogs, only 30 were saved, they come to occupy some 2,000 printed pages. Most of them come from the writings called "acroamáticos" designed to be used as discussed in the Lyceum and not to be published. In contrast, all works published in Aristotle's own life, written for the general public in the form of dialogues, have been lost.

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(island of Samos, now Greece, c. 572 BC-Metaponto, now defunct, now Italy, c. 497 BC) Greek philosopher and mathematician. Dont know much of the biography of Pythagoras that can be considered reliable, as settlor of a religious sect led to the early appearance of a legendary tradition around him.

seems certain that Pythagoras was the son of Mnesarco and the first part of his life was spent in Samos, the island that probably left a few years before the implementation of the tyrant Polycrates in 522 BC It is possible to travel then Miletus to visit after Phoenicia and Egypt, in the latter country, the birthplace of esoteric knowledge, is credited with having studied the mysteries, as well as geometry and astronomy.
Some sources say that Pythagoras went to Babylon after Cambyses there to learn arithmetic and musical knowledge of the priests. There is also talk of trips to Delos, Crete and Greece before settling down, At last the famous school in Crotona, where he enjoyed considerable popularity and power.
community eventually led by Pythagoras, plausibly, to become a political force aristocratic aroused the hostility of the Democratic Party, what led a revolt that forced Pythagoras to spend the last years of his life in Metaponto.
Pythagorean community was certainly surrounded by mystery, it seems that the disciples had to wait several years before being presented to the teacher and always keep strict secrecy about lessons learned. Women could join the brotherhood, the most famous of his attached was Theano, wife Pythagoras himself perhaps the mother of a daughter and two sons of the philosopher.
Pythagoreanism was a way of life, inspired by an ascetic ideal and based on community property, whose main objective was the ritual purification (catharsis) of its members through the cultivation of knowledge in which music and mathematics played an important role. The path of this knowledge was the philosophy, a term which, according to tradition, Pythagoras was first used in its literal sense of "love of wisdom."
also attributed to Pythagoras have transformed mathematics in a liberal education by developing an abstract of their results, regardless of background material already known some of them, this is especially the case of the famous theorem that bears his name and that establishes the relationship between the sides of a triangle, a list of practical use of which there is evidence from other pre-Greek civilizations.

The effort to rise to the generality of a mathematical theorem from its implementation in a particular case exemplifies the Pythagorean method for the purification and perfection of the soul, who taught about the world and harmony under the Constitution, the universe was a cosmos, that is, an ordered set in which the heavenly bodies kept a harmonious arrangement that made their distances from each other in proportions were similar to those for the intervals of the octave. In a significant sense, the harmony was musical, but its nature was intelligible numeric type, and if all was harmony, the number turned out to be the key to everything.
The unitary will of the Pythagorean doctrine was embodied in the relationship established between the cosmic and moral order, to the Pythagoreans, the man was also a true microcosm in which the soul appeared as the harmony of the body. In this sense, medicine was understood that the function of restoring harmony the individual when it is disturbed, and, being the music instrument par excellence for the purification of the soul, considered, therefore, as a medicine for the body. Pythagoras preached holiness involved a range of hygiene regulations based on taboos such as the prohibition of eating animals, which seems to have been directly connected with the belief in the transmigration of souls, it is said that Pythagoras himself claimed to be the son of Hermes, and that his disciples saw it as an incarnation of Apollo.

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Pythagoras Thales Information

Thales of Miletus (Greek Θαλής ο Μιλήσιος) (C. 639 or 624 BC - h. 547 / 6 BC ) was the originator of rational inquiry on universe, so he is considered the first philosopher of history. It was the first and most famous of the Seven Sages of Greece (the wise astronomer) and was a disciple and protected Pythagoras. It is beyond one of the greatest astronomers and mathematicians of his time to such an extent that was required reading for any mathematician in the Middle Ages and contemporary. His studies covered the area thoroughly Geometry, Linear Algebra , bodies in space and some branches of physics , such as Static , Dynamics and Optics . His life is shrouded in the mists of legend. It was the first Ionian philosopher .

Thales was born in the city of Miletus (Greek: Μίλητος bunk Miletos, Turkish: Milet) an ancient city on the western coast of Asia Minor (in what is now the province of Aydın in Turkey ), near the mouth of the Menderes River .
What little is known about the life of these comes from ancient sources, some different results. Most historians have us as genuine Milesian. However, according to Diogenes Laertius, a major Greek historian, was admitted to the Ionian city of Miletus , along the Aegean after being expelled from Phoenicia along with Nile. What is indisputable is that he lived in that city and it was there where he developed his philosophy. He was the son of Euxamias (also known as examined) and Cleobulina (or Cleobulus), and apparently had Phoenician ancestry. As the Ionians kept trade with Egypt and Babylon, it is likely that such visits the first when I was young, during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis , where it is assumed that he was educated by the priests. Perhaps it was his fellow students and Solon Pherecydes Syros. It is also likely to have personally known Pythagoras, who recommended to travel to and educate Egypt with the priests of Memphis and Diospolis . The Babylonians had to learn astronomy. Anaximander and Anaximenes may have been his disciples. Apollodorus, in his ¨ Chronology ¨, says he died at the age of seventy-eight. However, Sosícrates says LVIII died in the Olympics at the age of ninety years. Both
Herodotus (I, 170) as Diogenes Laertius (I, 25) mark him as a wise political advisor Ionians and Lydians . Laertius says some like the poet Corilio stated that he was the first to hold the immortality of the soul, which, as Aristotle tells us, is for Such a driving force. Herodotus also refers (I, 75) who managed to divert the river to Halys was crossed by the army of Croesus .
Aristotle , meanwhile, has in his Politics (I, 11, 1259th) also excelled in the area of \u200b\u200bfinance, after having predicted (thanks to his astronomical knowledge) how would the olive harvest, bought during the winter all the oil presses Miletus and Chios and rented to reach the harvest time, accumulating a vast fortune and showing that philosophers can be rich if they wish, but that his ambition is quite different.
Perhaps the most well-known anecdote of Thales is one that we Herodotus, when he predicted to the year Ionic a solar eclipse happen (perhaps made possible thanks to the Babylonian system), circa 585 BC. Similarly, Diogenes Laertius recounts, falling Tales in a well after being taken by an old woman to see the stars, it answered his cry for help: ¨ How do you expect, Tales, learn about the heavens, when no see what's under your feet? ¨. Is credited with having made the measurement of the pyramids, through the shadows they cast when they are the same as ourselves. It was the first to have made a scientific explanation of an eclipse . It is also said that it was the first divide the year in stations and in 365 days.
Thought and work
In times of Thales, the Greeks explained the origin and nature of the cosmos with myths of anthropomorphic gods and heroes.
Nature's explanation
Greek philosophy began with a question by nature (physis) or the principle or ultimate principles (land, water, air ...) that are the nature of things. Early Greek philosophers believed that either the land, water, air, etc. were those that were generated by all elements of the universe, namely the origin. They also believed that this principle or principles were those which consisted of all beings in the universe, ie substrate. Finally also to be what or who could explain the changes that take place in the universe, cause.
the explanation of those
If nature always remitted to a principle or arche could wonder whether it was possible to conceive of a single reality or substance that could carry on both origin and cause substrate. Such
argued that it was the water who played that role, and perhaps the first significant explanation of the physical world without explicit reference to the supernatural. Such stated that water is the primary universal substance and that the world is animated and full of divinities.
Reasons why water is the principle
Aristotle tells us that water Such is the beginning or arche ( arche) of all things because:
The earth rests on water.
moisture is in the nutrition of all things.
The heat itself is generated by the moisture retained by it.
The seeds of all things are wet, and water is the source of the nature of moist things.

Origin of thought are likely to have been one of the first men who carried geometry to Greek world, and Aristotle regarded as the first of the φυσικόι or "natural philosophers." Many of these ideas seem to come from his Egyptian education. Similarly, the idea that the earth floats on the water may have broken away from certain cosmological ideas of Middle East.

Works Some scholars argue that Thales did not write any works, and that their knowledge was transmitted, at first orally. Others, however, think so and, according to ancient sources, quote from his works (which have not survived or even piecemeal), a nautical astronomy (Attributed also to Focus Samos), On the solstices and equinoxes on.
Such appointments
few sentences and verses attributed to Diogenes Laertius These are:
Many words are not signs of cautious encouragement. Find a single
wisdom. Choose
one good thing.
thus breaking the language of the talkers (liars)
The most beautiful the world because it is God's work.
The larger the space, because it encompasses everything. The fastest
is understanding, because it runs across.
The stronger the need, because it dominates everything.
wisest thing is time, because it clarifies everything.
Laertius also ensures Such is the proverbial "know thyself."

While there are significant differences between the many pre-Socratic philosophers and schools may be said broadly agreed that the pre-Socratic attempt to offer a rational explanation [λόγος] of the Universe [κόσμος] rather than through myths [μύθοι] in the manner of Homer poets Hesiod and . Such explanations are limited, frequently, the application of a first principle, arche [Πρώτη αρχή] or item [στοιχείον] of all existing things [τά όντα].
But it should make clear that this principle was not understood as originating in all things, as the Greeks did not have an idea of \u200b\u200bcreating the universe from nothing, but was conceived as a common element found in nature , from which, of course, would settle the rest.
Now, on what were those principles and of what kind, their ideas differed considerably. For some, the principle could be any of the so-called "four elements (earth, water, air and fire). This is mainly in the first philosophers, who took the first step to overcome the mythical explanation, embracing the elements that were once embodied by the gods, and now, would be metaphysical. Moreover, in the case of Empedocles , for example, was taken together the four elements plus two principles: love [φιλία] and fight [νείκος]. For other Presocratics, however, there was one principle that a substance could be infinite or indeterminate [τό άπειρον] or thought [νούς] and even the be [τό όν].
Aristotle was the first to referirise Presocratic philosophers "physical" [οι φυσικοί] and they attributed this search as a feature αρχή. However, some contemporary commentators (eg. H. Cherniss, Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy) consider that the Aristotelian approach is wrong. In fact, if it is true that some pre-Socratic philosophers argue that the universe is made of a natural principle, as the air [αήρ], in the case of Anaximenes - is not the fact that in the case of other philosophers Such -like Heraclitus or for whom the water [ύδωρ] or fire [πύρ], respectively, constitute the generative principle of all that exists-the elements would be mere "precursors" of the cosmos (cf. GS Kirk & JE Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers) or complex metaphors in fact, does not constitute a concrete element as founding principle. This could be the case of Heraclitus, who could use fire as a symbol for the future "... fire is turned on and off as far as measure. "(Greek Θαλής ο Μιλήσιος) (h 639 or 624 BC - h. 547 / 6 BC ) was the originator of rational inquiry on universe, so it is considered the first philosopher of history. It was the first and most famous of the Seven Sages of Greece (the learned astronomer) and was a disciple and protected Pythagoras. It is beyond one of the greatest astronomers and mathematicians of his time to such an extent that was required reading for any mathematician in the Middle Ages and contemporary. His studies covered the area thoroughly Geometry, Linear Algebra , bodies in space and some branches of physics , such as Static , Dynamics and Optics . His life is shrouded in the mists of legend. It was the first Ionian philosopher .

Thales was born in the city of Miletus (Greek: Μίλητος bunk Miletos, Turkish: Milet) an ancient city on the western coast of Asia Minor (in what is now the province of Aydın in Turkey ) near the mouth of the Menderes River .
What little is known about the life of Tales from ancient sources, some different results. Most historians have us as genuine Milesian. However, according to Diogenes Laertius, a major Greek historian, was admitted to the Ionian city of Miletus , along the Aegean after being expelled from Phoenicia along with Nile. What is indisputable is that he lived in that city and it was there where he developed his philosophy. He was the son of Euxamias (also known as examined) and Cleobulina (or Cleobulus), and apparently had Phoenician ancestry. As the Ionians kept trade with Egypt and Babylon, it is likely that such visits first when I was young, during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis , where it is assumed that he was educated by the priests. Perhaps it was his fellow students and Solon Pherecydes Syros. It is also likely to have personally known Pythagoras, who recommended to travel to and educate Egypt with the priests of Memphis and Diospolis . The Babylonians had to learn astronomy. Anaximander and Anaximenes may have been his disciples. Apollodorus, in his ¨ Chronology ¨, says he died at the age of seventy-eight. However, Sosícrates says LVIII died in the Olympics at the age of ninety years. Both
Herodotus (I, 170) as Diogenes Laertius (I, 25) mark him as a wise political advisor Ionians and Lydians . Laertius says some like the poet Corilio stated that he was the first to hold the immortality of the soul, which, as Aristotle tells us, is for Such a driving force. Herodotus also refers (I, 75) who managed to deflect Halys River to be crossed by the army of Croesus .
Aristotle, meanwhile, has in his Politics (I, 11, 1259th) also excelled in the area of \u200b\u200bfinance, after having predicted (thanks to his astronomical knowledge) how would the olive harvest bought during the winter all the oil presses Miletus and Chios and rented to reach the harvest season, accumulating a vast fortune and showing that philosophers can be rich if they wish, but that his ambition is quite different. Perhaps the anecdote
Such known is that which Herodotus tells us, when he predicted to the year Ionic happen a solar eclipse (perhaps made possible thanks to the Babylonian system), circa 585 BC. Similarly, Diogenes Laertius recounts, falling Tales in a well after being taken by an old woman to see the stars, it answered his cry for help: ¨ How do you expect, Tales, learn about the heavens, when no see what's under your feet? ¨. Is credited with having made the measurement of the pyramids, through the shadows they cast when they are the same as ourselves. It was the first to have made a scientific explanation of an eclipse . Also said to be the first to divide the year at stations and in 365 days.
Thought and work
In times of Thales, the Greeks explained the origin and nature of the cosmos with myths of anthropomorphic gods and heroes.
Nature's explanation
Greek philosophy began with a question by nature (physis) or the principle or ultimate principles (land, water, air ...) that are the nature of things. Early Greek philosophers believed that either the land, water, air, etc. were those that were generated by all elements of the universe, namely the origin. They also believed that this principle or principles are those which consisted of all beings in the universe, ie substrate. Finally also to be what or who could explain the changes that take place in the universe, cause.
the explanation of those
If nature always remitted to a principle or arche could wonder whether it was possible to conceive of a single reality or substance that could carry on both origin and cause substrate. Such
argued that it was the water who played that role, and perhaps the first explanation significant physical world without explicit reference to the supernatural. Such stated that water is the primary universal substance and that the world is animated and full of divinities.
Reasons why water is the principle
Aristotle tells us that water Such is the beginning or arche ( arche) of all things because:
The earth rests on water.
moisture is in the nutrition of all things.
The heat itself is generated by the moisture retained by it.
The seeds of all things are wet, and water is the source of the nature of moist things.
Origin of thought
is likely to have been one of the first men who led the Greek world geometry and Aristotle regarded as the first of the φυσικόι or "natural philosophers." Many of these ideas seem to come from his Egyptian education. Similarly, the idea that the earth floats on the water may have broken away from certain cosmological ideas of Middle East.

Works Some scholars argue that Thales did not write any works, and that their knowledge was transmitted, at first orally. Others, however, think so and, according to ancient sources, quote from his works (the which have not survived or even piecemeal), a nautical astronomy (attributed also to Samos Focus ), On the solstices and equinoxes on.
Such appointments
few sentences and verses attributed to Diogenes Laertius These are:
Many words are not signs of cautious encouragement. Find a single
wisdom. Choose
one good thing.
thus breaking the language of the talkers (liars)
The most beautiful the world because it is God's work.
The larger the space, because it encompasses everything. The fastest
is understanding, because it runs across.
The stronger the need, because it dominates everything.
wisest thing is time, because clarifies everything.
Laertius also ensures Such is the proverbial "know thyself."

While there are significant differences between the many pre-Socratic philosophers and schools may be said broadly agreed that the pre-Socratic attempt to offer a rational explanation [λόγος] of the Universe [κόσμος] rather than through myths [μύθοι] in the manner of Homer poets Hesiod and . Such explanations were limited, often, the application of a first principle, arche [πρώτη αρχή] or item [στοιχείον] of all existing things [τά όντα].
But it should make clear that this principle was not understood as originating in all things, as the Greeks did not have an idea of \u200b\u200bcreating the universe from nothing, but was conceived as a common element found in nature , from which, of course, would settle the rest.
Now, on what were those principles and of what kind, their ideas differed considerably. For some, the principle could be any of the so-called "four elements (earth, water, air and fire). This is mainly in the first philosophers, who took the first step to overcome the mythical explanation, embracing the elements that were once embodied by the gods, and now, would be metaphysical. Moreover, in the case of Empedocles , for example, was taken together the four elements plus two principles: love [φιλία] and fight [νείκος]. For other Presocratics, however, there was one principle that a substance could be infinite or indeterminate [τό άπειρον] or thought [νούς] and even be [τό όν].
Aristotle was the first referirise as the pre-Socratic philosophers 'physical' [οι φυσικοί] and they attributed this search as a feature αρχή. However, some contemporary commentators (eg. H. Cherniss, Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy) consider that the Aristotelian approach is wrong. In fact, if it is true that some pre-Socratic philosophers argue that the universe is made of a natural principle, as the air [αήρ] in For Anaximenes - is no less true that in the case of other philosophers -like Such or Heraclitus, for whom water [ύδωρ] or fire [πύρ], respectively, are the generating principle of all that exists, "the elements would be mere" precursors "of the cosmos (cf. GS Kirk & JE Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers) or complex metaphors in fact, does not constitute a specific element principle founding. This could be the case of Heraclitus, who could use fire as a symbol for the future "... fire that turns on and off as far as measured.

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South-East Regional Expociencia 2008

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